Qualitative research is a type of method that researchers use depending on their study requirements. Research can be conducted using several methods, but before starting the process, researchers should understand the different methods available to decide the best one for their study type. The type of research method needed depends on a few important criteria, such as the research question, study type, time, costs, data availability, and availability of respondents. The two main types of methods are qualitative research and quantitative research. Sometimes, researchers may find it difficult to decide which type of method is most suitable for their study. Keeping in mind a simple rule of thumb could help you make the correct decision. Quantitative research should be used to validate or test a theory or hypothesis and qualitative research should be used to understand a subject or event or identify reasons for observed patterns.
Qualitative research methods are based on principles of social sciences from several disciplines like psychology, sociology, and anthropology. In this method, researchers try to understand the feelings and motivation of their respondents, which would have prompted them to select or give a particular response to a question. Here are two qualitative research examples:
- Two brands (A & B) of the same medicine are available at a pharmacy. However, Brand A is more popular and has higher sales. In qualitative research, the interviewers would ideally visit a few stores in different areas and ask customers their reason for selecting either brand. Respondents may have different reasons that motivate them to select one brand over the other, such as brand loyalty, cost, feedback from friends, doctor’s suggestion, etc. Once the reasons are known, companies could then address challenges in that specific area to increase their product’s sales.
- A company organizes a focus group meeting with a random sample of its product’s consumers to understand their opinion on a new product being launched.
What is qualitative research?1
Qualitative research is the process of collecting, analyzing, and interpreting non-numerical data. The findings of qualitative research are expressed in words and help in understanding individuals’ subjective perceptions about an event, condition, or subject. This type of research is exploratory and is used to generate hypotheses or theories from data. Qualitative data are usually in the form of text, videos, photographs, and audio recordings. There are multiple qualitative research types, which will be discussed later.
Qualitative research methods2
Researchers can choose from several qualitative research methods depending on the study type, research question, the researcher’s role, data to be collected, etc.
The following table lists the common qualitative research approaches with their purpose and examples, although there may be an overlap between some.
| Qualitative research approach | Purpose | Examples |
| Narrative | Explore the experiences of individuals and tell a story to give insight into human lives and behaviors. Narratives can be obtained from journals, letters, conversations, autobiographies, interviews, etc. | A researcher collecting information to create a biography using old documents, interviews, etc. |
| Phenomenology | Explain life experiences or phenomena, focusing on people’s subjective experiences and interpretations of the world. | Researchers exploring the experiences of family members of an individual undergoing a major surgery. |
| Grounded theory | Investigate process, actions, and interactions, and based on this grounded or empirical data a theory is developed. Unlike experimental research, this method doesn’t require a hypothesis theory to begin with. | A company with a high attrition rate and no prior data may use this method to understand the reasons for which employees leave. |
| Ethnography | Describe an ethnic, cultural, or social group by observation in their naturally occurring environment. | A researcher studying medical personnel in the immediate care division of a hospital to understand the culture and staff behaviors during high capacity. |
| Case study | In-depth analysis of complex issues in real-life settings, mostly used in business, law, and policymaking. Learnings from case studies can be implemented in other similar contexts. | A case study about how a particular company turned around its product sales and the marketing strategies they used could help implement similar methods in other companies. |
Types of qualitative research3,4
The data collection methods in qualitative research are designed to assess and understand the perceptions, motivations, and feelings of the respondents about the subject being studied. The different qualitative research types include the following:
- In-depth or one-on-one interviews: This is one of the most common qualitative research methods and helps the interviewers understand a respondent’s subjective opinion and experience pertaining to a specific topic or event. These interviews are usually conversational and encourage the respondents to express their opinions freely. Semi-structured interviews, which have open-ended questions (where the respondents can answer more than just “yes” or “no”), are commonly used. Such interviews can be either face-to-face or telephonic, and the duration can vary depending on the subject or the interviewer. Asking the right questions is essential in this method so that the interview can be led in the suitable direction. Face-to-face interviews also help interviewers observe the respondents’ body language, which could help in confirming whether the responses match.
- Document study/Literature review/Record keeping: Researchers’ review of already existing written materials such as archives, annual reports, research articles, guidelines, policy documents, etc.
- Focus groups: Usually include a small sample of about 6-10 people and a moderator, to understand the participants’ opinion on a given topic. Focus groups ensure constructive discussions to understand the why, what, and, how about the topic. These group meetings need not always be in-person. In recent times, online meetings are also encouraged, and online surveys could also be administered with the option to “write” subjective answers as well. However, this method is expensive and is mostly used for new products and ideas.
- Qualitative observation: In this method, researchers collect data using their five senses—sight, smell, touch, taste, and hearing. This method doesn’t include any measurements but only the subjective observation. For example, “The dessert served at the bakery was creamy with sweet buttercream frosting”; this observation is based on the taste perception.
Qualitative research: Data collection and analysis
- Qualitative data collection is the process by which observations or measurements are gathered in research.
- The data collected are usually non-numeric and subjective and could be recorded in various methods, for instance, in case of one-to-one interviews, the responses may be recorded using handwritten notes, and audio and video recordings, depending on the interviewer and the setting or duration.
- Once the data are collected, they should be transcribed into meaningful or useful interpretations. An experienced researcher could take about 8-10 hours to transcribe an interview’s recordings. All such notes and recordings should be maintained properly for later reference.
- Some interviewers make use of “field notes.” These are not exactly the respondents’ answers but rather some observations the interviewer may have made while asking questions and may include non-verbal cues or any information about the setting or the environment. These notes are usually informal and help verify respondents’ answers.
2. Qualitative data analysis
- This process involves analyzing all the data obtained from the qualitative research methods in the form of text (notes), audio-video recordings, and pictures.
- Text analysis is a common form of qualitative data analysis in which researchers examine the social lives of the participants and analyze their words, actions, etc. in specific contexts. Social media platforms are now playing an important role in this method with researchers analyzing all information shared online.
There are usually five steps in the qualitative data analysis process:5
- Prepare and organize the data
- Transcribe interviews
- Collect and document field notes and other material
- Review and explore the data
- Examine the data for patterns or important observations
- Develop a data coding system
- Create codes to categorize and connect the data
- Assign these codes to the data or responses
- Review the codes
- Identify recurring themes, opinions, patterns, etc.
- Present the findings
- Use the best possible method to present your observations
The following table6 lists some common qualitative data analysis methods used by companies to make important decisions, with examples and when to use each. The methods may be similar and can overlap.
| Method | When to use | Examples |
| Content analysis | To identify patterns in text, by grouping content into words, concepts, and themes; that is, determine presence of certain words or themes in some text | Researchers examining the language used in a journal article to search for bias |
| Narrative analysis | To understand people’s perspectives on specific issues. Focuses on people’s stories and the language used to tell these stories | A researcher conducting one or several in-depth interviews with an individual over a long period |
| Discourse analysis | To understand political, cultural, and power dynamics in specific contexts; that is, how people express themselves in different social contexts | A researcher studying a politician’s speeches across multiple contexts, such as audience, region, political history, etc. |
| Thematic analysis | To interpret the meaning behind the words used by people. This is done by identifying repetitive patterns or themes by reading through a dataset | Researcher analyzing raw data to explore the impact of high-stakes examinations on students and parents |
Characteristics of qualitative research methods4
- Unstructured raw data: Qualitative research methods use unstructured, non-numerical data, which are analyzed to generate subjective conclusions about specific subjects, usually presented descriptively, instead of using statistical data.
- Site-specific data collection: In qualitative research methods, data are collected at specific areas where the respondents or researchers are either facing a challenge or have a need to explore. The process is conducted in a real-world setting and participants do not need to leave their original geographical setting to be able to participate.
- Researchers’ importance: Researchers play an instrumental role because, in qualitative research, communication with respondents is an essential part of data collection and analysis. In addition, researchers need to rely on their own observation and listening skills during an interaction and use and interpret that data appropriately.
- Multiple methods: Researchers collect data through various methods, as listed earlier, instead of relying on a single source. Although there may be some overlap between the qualitative research methods, each method has its own significance.
- Solving complex issues: These methods help in breaking down complex problems into more useful and interpretable inferences, which can be easily understood by everyone.
- Unbiased responses: Qualitative research methods rely on open communication where the participants are allowed to freely express their views. In such cases, the participants trust the interviewer, resulting in unbiased and truthful responses.
- Flexible: The qualitative research method can be changed at any stage of the research. The data analysis is not confined to being done at the end of the research but can be done in tandem with data collection. Consequently, based on preliminary analysis and new ideas, researchers have the liberty to change the method to suit their objective.
When to use qualitative research 4
The following points will give you an idea about when to use qualitative research.
- When the objective of a research study is to understand behaviors and patterns of respondents, then qualitative research is the most suitable method because it gives a clear insight into the reasons for the occurrence of an event.
- A few use cases for qualitative research methods include:
- New product development or idea generation
- Strengthening a product’s marketing strategy
- Conducting a SWOT analysis of product or services portfolios to help take important strategic decisions
- Understanding purchasing behavior of consumers
- Understanding reactions of target market to ad campaigns
- Understanding market demographics and conducting competitor analysis
- Understanding the effectiveness of a new treatment method in a particular section of society
A qualitative research method case study to understand when to use qualitative research7
Context: A high school in the US underwent a turnaround or conservatorship process and consequently experienced a below average teacher retention rate. Researchers conducted qualitative research to understand teachers’ experiences and perceptions of how the turnaround may have influenced the teachers’ morale and how this, in turn, would have affected teachers’ retention.
Method: Purposive sampling was used to select eight teachers who were employed with the school before the conservatorship process and who were subsequently retained. One-on-one semi-structured interviews were conducted with these teachers. The questions addressed teachers’ perspectives of morale and their views on the conservatorship process.
Results: The study generated six factors that may have been influencing teachers’ perspectives: powerlessness, excessive visitations, loss of confidence, ineffective instructional practices, stress and burnout, and ineffective professional development opportunities. Based on these factors, four recommendations were made to increase teacher retention by boosting their morale.
Advantages of qualitative research1
- Reflects real-world settings, and therefore allows for ambiguities in data, as well as the flexibility to change the method based on new developments.
- Helps in understanding the feelings or beliefs of the respondents rather than relying only on quantitative data.
- Uses a descriptive and narrative style of presentation, which may be easier to understand for people from all backgrounds.
- Some topics involving sensitive or controversial content could be difficult to quantify and so qualitative research helps in analyzing such content.
- The availability of multiple data sources and research methods helps give a holistic picture.
- There’s more involvement of participants, which gives them an assurance that their opinion matters, possibly leading to unbiased responses.
Disadvantages of qualitative research1
- Large-scale data sets cannot be included because of time and cost constraints.
- Ensuring validity and reliability may be a challenge because of the subjective nature of the data, so drawing definite conclusions could be difficult.
- Replication by other researchers may be difficult for the same contexts or situations.
- Generalization to a wider context or to other populations or settings is not possible.
- Data collection and analysis may be time consuming.
- Researcher’s interpretation may alter the results causing an unintended bias.
Differences between qualitative research and quantitative research1
| Parameter | Qualitative research | Quantitative research |
| Purpose and design | Explore ideas, formulate hypotheses; more subjective | Test theories and hypotheses, discover causal relationships; measurable and more structured |
| Data collection method | Semi-structured interviews/surveys with open-ended questions, document study/literature reviews, focus groups, case study research, ethnography | Experiments, controlled observations, questionnaires and surveys with a rating scale or closed-ended questions. The methods can be experimental, quasi-experimental, descriptive, or correlational. |
| Data analysis | Content analysis (determine presence of certain words/concepts in texts), grounded theory (hypothesis creation by data collection and analysis), thematic analysis (identify important themes/patterns in data and use these to address an issue) | Statistical analysis using applications such as Excel, SPSS, R |
| Sample size | Small | Large |
| Example | A company organizing focus groups or one-to-one interviews to understand customers’ (subjective) opinions about a specific product, based on which the company can modify their marketing strategy | Customer satisfaction surveys sent out by companies. Customers are asked to rate their experience on a rating scale of 1 to 5 |
Frequently asked questions on qualitative research
Q: How do I know if qualitative research is appropriate for my study?
A: Here’s a simple checklist you could use:
- Not much is known about the subject being studied.
- There is a need to understand or simplify a complex problem or situation.
- Participants’ experiences/beliefs/feelings are required for analysis.
- There’s no existing hypothesis to begin with, rather a theory would need to be created after analysis.
- You need to gather in-depth understanding of an event or subject, which may not need to be supported by numeric data.
Q: How do I ensure the reliability and validity of my qualitative research findings?
A: To ensure the validity of your qualitative research findings you should explicitly state your objective and describe clearly why you have interpreted the data in a particular way. Another method could be to connect your data in different ways or from different perspectives to see if you reach a similar, unbiased conclusion.
To ensure reliability, always create an audit trail of your qualitative research by describing your steps and reasons for every interpretation, so that if required, another researcher could trace your steps to corroborate your (or their own) findings. In addition, always look for patterns or consistencies in the data collected through different methods.
Q: Are there any sampling strategies or techniques for qualitative research?
A: Yes, the following are few common sampling strategies used in qualitative research:
1. Convenience sampling
Selects participants who are most easily accessible to researchers due to geographical proximity, availability at a particular time, etc.
2. Purposive sampling
Participants are grouped according to predefined criteria based on a specific research question. Sample sizes are often determined based on theoretical saturation (when new data no longer provide additional insights).
3. Snowball sampling
Already selected participants use their social networks to refer the researcher to other potential participants.
4. Quota sampling
While designing the study, the researchers decide how many people with which characteristics to include as participants. The characteristics help in choosing people most likely to provide insights into the subject.
Q: What ethical standards need to be followed with qualitative research?
A: The following ethical standards should be considered in qualitative research:
- Anonymity: The participants should never be identified in the study and researchers should ensure that no identifying information is mentioned even indirectly.
- Confidentiality: To protect participants’ confidentiality, ensure that all related documents, transcripts, notes are stored safely.
- Informed consent: Researchers should clearly communicate the objective of the study and how the participants’ responses will be used prior to engaging with the participants.
Q: How do I address bias in my qualitative research?
A: You could use the following points to ensure an unbiased approach to your qualitative research:
- Check your interpretations of the findings with others’ interpretations to identify consistencies.
- If possible, you could ask your participants if your interpretations convey their beliefs to a significant extent.
- Data triangulation is a way of using multiple data sources to see if all methods consistently support your interpretations.
- Contemplate other possible explanations for your findings or interpretations and try ruling them out if possible.
- Conduct a peer review of your findings to identify any gaps that may not have been visible to you.
- Frame context-appropriate questions to ensure there is no researcher or participant bias.
We hope this article has given you answers to the question “what is qualitative research” and given you an in-depth understanding of the various aspects of qualitative research, including the definition, types, and approaches, when to use this method, and advantages and disadvantages, so that the next time you undertake a study you would know which type of research design to adopt.
References:
- McLeod, S. A. Qualitative vs. quantitative research. Simply Psychology [Accessed January 17, 2023]. www.simplypsychology.org/qualitative-quantitative.html
- Omniconvert website [Accessed January 18, 2023]. https://www.omniconvert.com/blog/qualitative-research-definition-methodology-limitation-examples/
- Busetto L., Wick W., Gumbinger C. How to use and assess qualitative research methods. Neurological Research and Practice [Accessed January 19, 2023] https://neurolrespract.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s42466-020-00059
- QuestionPro website. Qualitative research methods: Types & examples [Accessed January 16, 2023]. https://www.questionpro.com/blog/qualitative-research-methods/
- Campuslabs website. How to analyze qualitative data [Accessed January 18, 2023]. https://baselinesupport.campuslabs.com/hc/en-us/articles/204305675-How-to-analyze-qualitative-data
- Thematic website. Qualitative data analysis: Step-by-guide [Accessed January 20, 2023]. https://getthematic.com/insights/qualitative-data-analysis/
- Lane L. J., Jones D., Penny G. R. Qualitative case study of teachers’ morale in a turnaround school. Research in Higher Education Journal. https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1233111.pdf
- Meetingsnet website. 7 FAQs about qualitative research and CME [Accessed January 21, 2023]. https://www.meetingsnet.com/cme-design/7-faqs-about-qualitative-research-and-cme
- Qualitative research methods: A data collector’s field guide. Khoury College of Computer Sciences. Northeastern University. https://course.ccs.neu.edu/is4800sp12/resources/qualmethods.pdf
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