Key Takeaways
- Turabian format is the student-focused edition of Chicago style, first published in 1937 and now in its 9th edition (2018).
- It is designed for students writing research papers, theses, and dissertations that will not be published.
- Two citation systems are available: notes-bibliography (humanities) and author-date (sciences and social sciences).
- Formatting rules cover margins, fonts, spacing, title pages, five heading levels, and bibliography layout.
- Turabian and Chicago citation formats are identical; Turabian adds extra guidance tailored to student papers.
- Knowing which citation system your instructor requires before you start writing saves significant revision time.
- An annotated bibliography in Turabian style follows standard bibliography formatting with a short evaluative paragraph added after each entry.
- Generative AI output cited in Turabian style is treated as personal communication and does not appear in the bibliography unless a publicly accessible link exists.
Glossary of Key Terms
| Term | Definition |
| Turabian | A citation and formatting guide for student research papers, theses, and dissertations, written by Kate L. Turabian and based on the Chicago Manual of Style. |
| Chicago Manual of Style (CMOS) | The comprehensive style guide for professional publishers and scholars, on which Turabian is based. |
| Notes-bibliography style | A citation system using numbered footnotes or endnotes in the text, paired with a full bibliography at the end of the paper. |
| Author-date style | A citation system using parenthetical in-text citations (author, year) paired with a reference list at the end. |
| Footnote | A citation or explanatory note placed at the bottom of the page it references, marked by a superscript number in the text. |
| Endnote | A citation or explanatory note placed at the end of the paper (rather than the bottom of the page), marked by a superscript number in the text. |
| Bibliography | An alphabetical list of all sources cited in a notes-bibliography paper, placed on a new page at the end. |
| Reference list | An alphabetical list of all sources cited in an author-date paper, placed on a new page at the end. |
| Hanging indent | A paragraph format where the first line sits at the left margin and all subsequent lines are indented half an inch, used in bibliographies and reference lists. |
| Et al. | Latin abbreviation for ‘and others,’ used in citations when a source has multiple authors. |
| Ibid. | Latin abbreviation for ‘in the same place,’ used in some institutional styles to refer to the same source as the immediately preceding footnote. |
| Annotated bibliography | A bibliography in which each entry is followed by a short paragraph summarizing and evaluating the source. |
| Superscript | A number printed slightly above the main line of text, used in Turabian to mark footnote and endnote references. |
| Short note | A shortened version of a footnote citation used after the first full citation of a source. |
What Is Turabian Style, and Who Is It For?
Turabian style is a citation and formatting guide written specifically for students. It covers how to structure a research paper, thesis, or dissertation, and how to cite sources in either of two Chicago-based citation systems.
Kate L. Turabian served as the dissertation secretary at the University of Chicago for decades. In 1937 she published the first edition of A Manual for Writers of Research Papers, Theses, and Dissertations to give students a single, practical reference for academic writing. The manual is now in its 9th edition, published in 2018 by the University of Chicago Press, and is commonly referred to simply as ‘Turabian.’
The 9th edition is based on the 17th edition of the Chicago Manual of Style. Note: the Chicago Manual of Style released an 18th edition in 2024, but as of mid-2026 the Turabian manual has not yet been updated to reflect it. Students should continue following the 9th edition of Turabian until an updated edition is released.
Turabian vs. Chicago Style: What Is the Difference?
Turabian is not a separate citation style. It is a student-friendly guide for applying Chicago style. The citation formats in both manuals are identical; the difference lies in audience, scope, and paper formatting guidance.
| Feature | Turabian (9th ed.) | Chicago Manual of Style (17th ed.) |
| Audience | Students writing research papers, theses, dissertations | Professional publishers, editors, scholars |
| Primary purpose | Academic paper writing and submission | Manuscript preparation for publication |
| Length | ~400 pages | ~1,000 pages |
| Paper formatting rules | Detailed: title page, heading levels, margins, pagination | Minimal: publishers set their own house style |
| Citation formats | Identical to Chicago | Identical to Turabian |
| Research and writing guidance | Included | Not included |
| Cost and availability | Widely available in print and digital formats | Available via subscription or purchase |
When a professor says ‘use Chicago style,’ they almost always mean the Turabian guidelines are appropriate. If uncertain, confirm with your instructor whether they want the full Chicago Manual or the Turabian student guide.
Why Is Turabian the Right Choice for Students?
Turabian is designed for students because it addresses the specific situations they face: formatting a title page, organizing chapters, numbering pages in a thesis, and working with sources that professional publishers rarely cite. The Chicago Manual does not cover most of these scenarios.
Turabian is the correct choice when:
- You are writing a course paper, research paper, thesis, or dissertation.
- Your paper will not be submitted to a journal or publisher.
- Your instructor specifies Chicago, Chicago/Turabian, or Turabian style.
- You are in the humanities, history, arts, business, or social sciences.
The Chicago Manual of Style is the better choice when:
- You are preparing a manuscript for submission to a journal or press.
- Your institution or publisher specifically requires it.
- You need guidance on editorial topics such as indexing, permissions, or typesetting.
Notes-Bibliography vs. Author-Date: Which Citation System Should You Use?
Turabian offers two citation systems. You must choose one and use it consistently throughout the paper. The correct choice depends on your academic discipline.
| Feature | Notes-bibliography | Author-date |
| How sources appear in text | Superscript number referring to a footnote or endnote | Parenthetical citation: (Author Year, page) |
| End-of-paper list title | Bibliography | References |
| Typical disciplines | Humanities: history, literature, philosophy, arts | Sciences, social sciences, education, business |
| Flexibility for unusual sources | High: notes can carry additional commentary | Lower: limited to parenthetical format |
| Reader experience | Citations stay out of the main text flow | Author and year visible in the text itself |
If your assignment sheet specifies neither system, check your department’s conventions. History and literature courses almost always use notes-bibliography. Sociology, economics, and education courses typically use author-date. When still uncertain, ask your instructor directly.
How Does the Notes-Bibliography System Work?
In notes-bibliography style, every time you quote or paraphrase a source, you insert a superscript number at the end of the relevant clause or sentence. That number corresponds to a note, either at the bottom of the page (footnote) or at the end of the paper (endnote). Use one format consistently; do not mix footnotes and endnotes in the same paper.
The first time you cite a source, the note must contain full bibliographic information. For all later citations of the same source, you use a shortened note: author last name, a shortened title (if needed), and the page number.
A bibliography at the end of the paper lists every source cited, in alphabetical order by the author’s last name. Bibliography entries use a different punctuation pattern from footnotes: elements are separated by periods rather than commas, and the author’s name is inverted (Last, First).
How Does the Author-Date System Work?
In author-date style, you place a short parenthetical citation directly in the text: the author’s last name, the year of publication, and (when quoting or referring to a specific passage) a page number. Example: (Swafford 1992, 518).
Every in-text citation must correspond to an entry in the reference list at the end of the paper. The reference list is formatted similarly to a bibliography but places the publication year immediately after the author’s name, making it easy for readers to cross-reference.
Turabian Citation Format: Notes-Bibliography Examples
Books
| Citation type | Format and example |
| Full footnote | Author First Last, Title: Subtitle (Place: Publisher, Year), page. Example: Jan Swafford, The Vintage Guide to Classical Music (New York: Vintage, 1992), 518. |
| Short note | Author Last, Shortened Title, page. Example: Swafford, Vintage Guide, 345. |
| Bibliography entry | Author Last, First. Title: Subtitle. Place: Publisher, Year. Example: Swafford, Jan. The Vintage Guide to Classical Music. New York: Vintage, 1992. |
Book Chapters
| Citation type | Format and example |
| Full footnote | Author First Last, “Chapter Title,” in Book Title, ed. Editor First Last (Place: Publisher, Year), page. Example: Isobel Grundy, “Jane Austen and Literary Traditions,” in The Cambridge Companion to Jane Austen, ed. Edward Copeland and Juliet McMaster (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2011), 195. |
| Short note | Author Last, “Shortened Chapter Title,” page. Example: Grundy, “Austen and Literary Traditions,” 211. |
| Bibliography entry | Author Last, First. “Chapter Title.” In Book Title, edited by Editor First Last, page range. Place: Publisher, Year. Example: Grundy, Isobel. “Jane Austen and Literary Traditions.” In The Cambridge Companion to Jane Austen, edited by Edward Copeland and Juliet McMaster, 192-214. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2011. |
Journal Articles
| Citation type | Format and example |
| Full footnote | Author First Last, “Article Title,” Journal Name Volume, no. Issue (Season Year): page. DOI. Example: Ann Effland, “Small Farms/Family Farms: Tracing a History of Definitions and Meanings,” Agricultural History 95, no. 2 (Spring 2021): 315. doi:10.3098/ah.2021.095.2.313. |
| Short note | Author Last, “Shortened Title,” page. Example: Effland, “Small Farms/Family Farms,” 325. |
| Bibliography entry | Author Last, First. “Article Title.” Journal Name Volume, no. Issue (Season Year): page range. DOI. Example: Effland, Ann. “Small Farms/Family Farms: Tracing a History of Definitions and Meanings.” Agricultural History 95, no. 2 (Spring 2021): 313-330. doi:10.3098/ah.2021.095.2.313. |
Websites
| Citation type | Format and example |
| Full footnote | Author First Last, “Page Title,” Website Name, Month Day, Year, URL. Example: Pritha Bhandari, “How to Write a Lab Report,” Scriber, May 20, 2021, scriber.com/methodology/lab-report. |
| Short note | Author Last, “Shortened Page Title.” Example: Bhandari, “Lab Report.” |
| Bibliography entry | Author Last, First. “Page Title.” Website Name. Month Day, Year. URL. Example: Bhandari, Pritha. “How to Write a Lab Report.” Scriber. May 20, 2021. scriber.com/methodology/lab-report. |
| No publication date | Replace date with “Accessed Month Day, Year” in bibliography, and use “n.d.” in author-date in-text citations. |
Turabian Citation Format: Author-Date Examples
| Source type | Reference list entry | In-text citation |
| Book | Swafford, Jan. 1992. The Vintage Guide to Classical Music. New York: Vintage. | (Swafford 1992, 518) |
| Book chapter | Grundy, Isobel. 2011. “Jane Austen and Literary Traditions.” In The Cambridge Companion to Jane Austen, edited by Edward Copeland and Juliet McMaster, 192-214. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. | (Grundy 2011, 195) |
| Journal article | Effland, Ann. 2021. “Small Farms/Family Farms: Tracing a History of Definitions and Meanings.” Agricultural History 95, no. 2 (Spring): 313-330. doi:10.3098/ah.2021.095.2.313. | (Effland 2021, 315) |
| Website | Bhandari, Pritha. 2021. “How to Write a Lab Report.” Scriber. May 20, 2021. scriber.com. | (Bhandari 2021) |
| Website, no date | Author Last, First. n.d. “Page Title.” Website Name. Accessed Month Day, Year. URL. | (Author n.d.) |
Turabian Et Al. Rules: How to Cite Multiple Authors
The rules for listing multiple authors differ depending on the citation type and the number of authors. Apply the table below consistently.
| Number of authors | Footnote or in-text citation | Bibliography or reference list |
| 1 author | Full name | Last, First. |
| 2 authors | First Last and First Last | Last, First, and First Last. |
| 3 authors (notes-bibliography) | First Last, First Last, and First Last (full note); First Last et al. (short note and in-text) | List all three authors. |
| 4-6 authors | First author only, followed by et al. | List all authors. |
| 7 or more authors | First author only, followed by et al. | List first three authors, then et al. |
Example full footnote (four authors): Jay M. Bernstein et al., Art and Aesthetics after Adorno (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2010), 276.
Example bibliography entry (four authors): Bernstein, Jay M., Claudia Brodsky, Anthony J. Cascardi, and Thierry de Duve. Art and Aesthetics after Adorno. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2010.
Basic Formatting Guidelines for a Chicago Style Student Paper
The following rules apply to the main body of any student paper formatted in Turabian style. Always check your institution’s requirements, as some universities add or modify specific rules.
| Element | Turabian requirement |
| Paper size | US Letter (8.5 x 11 inches) unless otherwise specified |
| Margins | At least 1 inch on all four sides; dissertations may require a wider left margin for binding |
| Font | A readable, widely available font such as Times New Roman (12 pt) or Arial (12 pt) |
| Main text spacing | Double-spaced throughout |
| Exceptions to double-spacing | Block quotations, table titles, figure captions, footnotes, endnotes, bibliography entries, and reference list entries are all single-spaced with one blank line between items |
| Paragraph indent | First line of each paragraph indented 0.5 inches |
| Right margin | Ragged (not justified) |
| Page numbers | Top right corner or bottom center, placed 0.5 inches from the edge |
| Writing voice | Third person (he, she, it, they); avoid first person (I, me, we) unless your instructor specifically requests it |
| Tense | Simple past tense for historical events; present tense when referring to an author’s written work |
Turabian Title Page: What Goes Where?
The title page is the first page of the paper. It is counted as page one but never displays a page number. All elements are centered.
| Element | Position and format |
| Paper title | Centered approximately one-third down the page; headline case (capitalize all major words); do not underline or put in quotation marks |
| Subtitle | Placed directly below the title, separated by a colon in the title line or on a new line; same formatting as the title |
| Author name | Centered below the title, approximately two-thirds down the page |
| Course information | Course name, instructor name, and institution name, each on a separate centered line below the author name |
| Date | Month, day, year on the final centered line |
| Page number | Not shown on the title page |
| Dissertation format | Adds degree name, department, and university; follows the specific requirements of the awarding institution |
Turabian Title Page Template
Download a free title page template in Turabian style: Turabian_Title_Page_Template
Layout: Built to exact Turabian specs: title block sits at the one-third mark, author/course block at the two-thirds mark, on US Letter paper with 1-inch margins throughout. No page number appears anywhere on the page.
Fields to fill in (shown in gray italic):
| Placeholder | Replace with |
|---|---|
[Paper Title: Full Title in Headline Case] |
Your title, capitalizing all major words |
[Subtitle, If Any] |
Your subtitle, or delete the line entirely |
[Your Full Name] |
Your name as it appears on university records |
[Course Number: Course Name] |
e.g., HIST 4201: Research Methods in History |
[Professor's Full Name] |
e.g., Professor Jane Smith |
[Institution Name] |
Your university |
[Month Day, Year] |
Written out in full, e.g., June 18, 2026 |
Before submitting:
Delete all the small gray instruction lines beneath each field, and delete the reminder note at the bottom. They are there only to guide editing and should not appear in the final paper. The title uses Times New Roman 14pt bold (the conventional choice); body fields are 12pt, matching standard Turabian paper formatting.
Turabian Heading Levels: How Are They Formatted?
Turabian defines five heading levels for organizing a paper. Each level has a distinct combination of alignment, weight, and capitalization. Use heading levels in order; do not skip a level.
| Level | Alignment | Style | Capitalization | Example |
| 1 | Centered | Bold | Headline case | Literature Review |
| 2 | Centered | Not bold | Headline case | Early Studies on the Topic |
| 3 | Flush left | Bold | Headline case | Methodological Approaches |
| 4 | Flush left | Not bold | Sentence case | Qualitative methods used in the field |
| 5 | Indented 0.5 in. | Italic, not bold | Sentence case, ends with period. | Ethnographic fieldwork methods. Begin text on the same line after the period. |
Headline case: capitalize the first word, the last word, and all major words (typically four or more letters). Do not capitalize articles, prepositions, or coordinating conjunctions unless they begin the heading.
Sentence case: capitalize only the first word, proper nouns, and the first word after a colon.
How Should Pages Be Numbered?
Turabian uses two separate pagination sequences. Front matter (table of contents, lists of figures) uses lowercase Roman numerals (i, ii, iii) centered at the bottom of the page, starting with ii to account for the title page. The body of the paper and any back matter use Arabic numerals (1, 2, 3) placed in the top right corner, starting at 1.
How to Format the Bibliography or Reference List
The bibliography (notes-bibliography papers) or reference list (author-date papers) begins on a new page after the conclusion. The heading ‘Bibliography’ or ‘References’ is centered at the top of the page.
| Element | Rule |
| Heading | Centered at the top of the new page; not bold, italic, or underlined |
| Entry spacing | Single-spaced within each entry; one blank line between entries |
| Indent style | Hanging indent: first line at the left margin, subsequent lines indented 0.5 inches |
| Order | Alphabetical by the first word of each entry (usually the author’s last name) |
| Author name format | Invert the first author’s name (Last, First); do not invert additional co-authors |
| DOI and URL | Include at the end of the entry; follow with a period |
| Access dates | Include only for online content that is likely to change (such as wikis or living documents) |
Turabian Annotated Bibliography: How Is It Different?
A Turabian annotated bibliography follows the same formatting rules as a standard bibliography, but each entry is followed by a short annotation. The annotation is a paragraph of approximately 150 to 200 words placed on a new line below the citation, indented to align with the hanging indent.
Each annotation should:
- Summarize the main argument, thesis, or scope of the source.
- Identify the intended audience and the methodology used.
- Evaluate the strengths and limitations of the source.
- Explain how the source relates to and supports your research.
- Be written in the third person (the author argues, the study demonstrates).
There are two common annotation types:
- Summary annotation: describes the content without evaluation.
- Evaluative annotation: both summarizes and critically assesses the source for accuracy, relevance, and quality.
An annotated bibliography is often double-spaced throughout, with no extra blank line between the citation and its annotation. Confirm the spacing requirement with your instructor, as conventions vary.
What Is New in Turabian 9th Edition?
The 9th edition, published in 2018, is the current and authoritative version of the Turabian manual. Key changes from earlier editions include:
- is no longer recommended. The 9th edition advises using shortened notes instead of ibid. for all subsequent citations. Some institutions still require ibid.; always follow your school’s specific policy.
- DOIs are preferred over URLs for journal articles when available, formatted without a ‘doi:’ prefix (e.g., https://doi.org/…).
- The student title page format was updated to separate it clearly from the dissertation title page format.
- The author-date style was re-labeled (previously called ‘parenthetical citations’ in some earlier editions).
- Updated guidance was added for digital and online sources.
Note on the Chicago Manual of Style 18th edition (2024): the new CMOS edition omits the place of publication for books published after 1900, adds guidance on citing AI-generated content, and updates inclusion and accessibility language. Turabian has not yet been updated to reflect these changes. Until the 10th edition of Turabian is published, students should follow the 9th edition rules.
How to Cite AI-Generated Content in Turabian Style
As of the 9th edition, Turabian does not have a dedicated AI citation format. The Chicago Manual of Style treats AI-generated content as personal communication, which means:
- Cite AI output in a footnote or endnote only; do not add it to the bibliography unless the tool produces a stable, publicly accessible link to the exact conversation.
- Include the name of the tool, the version if known, the prompt you used, and the date accessed.
- Example footnote: OpenAI, ChatGPT (GPT-4, March 14, 2023), response to prompt ‘Explain the notes-bibliography citation system,’ March 14, 2023.
- Always confirm with your instructor whether AI-generated content is permitted in your assignment before citing it.
Frequently Asked Questions
My professor said ‘Chicago style.’ Do I use Turabian or the Chicago Manual of Style?
Use Turabian. When instructors say ‘Chicago style’ for a course paper, they almost always mean the student-focused Turabian guidelines. The citation formats are identical in both manuals. Turabian adds the paper formatting rules (title page, heading levels, margins) that the Chicago Manual does not cover for students. If your professor has a specific preference, ask.
Do I have to use ibid., or can I use shortened notes instead?
The Turabian 9th edition recommends shortened notes and no longer endorses ibid. However, many universities and individual instructors still require ibid. for consecutive citations of the same source on the same page. Always check your institution’s style guide or ask your professor before assuming one format is acceptable.
Can I mix footnotes and endnotes in the same paper?
No. Turabian requires you to choose either footnotes or endnotes and use your chosen format throughout the entire paper. Footnotes appear at the bottom of the page on which the source is cited and allow the reader to check the reference without flipping pages. Endnotes are grouped at the end of the paper and reduce visual clutter on the page. The citation format is the same for both.
Is a bibliography required, or is it optional in Turabian?
In notes-bibliography style, a bibliography is strongly recommended and is standard practice. It is technically optional only if every source receives a complete full note the first time it is cited and no shortened notes are used. In author-date style, a reference list is required without exception. Most instructors and institutions expect a bibliography regardless of the citation system used.
How do I handle a source that has no author, no date, or no page numbers?
For sources with no author, use the name of the organization or website as the author. For online sources with no publication date, use ‘n.d.’ in author-date citations and include the date you accessed the page in the bibliography. For sources without page numbers (such as websites or ebooks with location markers), substitute a chapter number, section heading in quotation marks, or a timestamp for audiovisual sources. Omit page references entirely when citing a source’s general argument rather than a specific passage.
What is the difference between a Turabian bibliography and a reference list?
The content is the same: both list every source cited in the paper with full bibliographic information. The structural difference is the placement of the publication year. In a bibliography (used with notes-bibliography style), the year appears near the end of the entry. In a reference list (used with author-date style), the year appears immediately after the author’s name. The name of the section also changes: ‘Bibliography’ for notes papers, ‘References’ for author-date papers.
My instructor wants a Turabian paper but I used an AI tool in my research. How do I handle this?
First, confirm with your instructor whether AI assistance is permitted and to what extent. If it is permitted, Chicago/Turabian treats AI-generated text as personal communication. Disclose your use in a footnote with the tool name, version, prompt, and date. Do not add the AI tool to your bibliography unless the platform generates a permanent, publicly shareable link to the specific output. Present all content as your own only if you substantially rewrote and verified every AI-generated passage.
Does Turabian format apply to discussion board posts and online assignments, not just full papers?
It depends on your institution. Many universities that use Turabian for formal papers also expect Turabian citation conventions in discussion board posts, requiring footnotes and a bibliography list even in shorter online responses. Other institutions apply a lighter standard to discussion posts. Check your course syllabus or ask your professor for the expected level of formality. As a general rule, if you are quoting or paraphrasing a source in any academic context, citing it in Turabian format is better than not citing it at all.
This article was originally published on June 11, 2024, and updated on June 18, 2026.
